Notes and references

Chapter 1: Introduction

1	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
2	Adapted from Scotese, CR, 1997, 'Paleogeographic Atlas: PALEOMAP progress report 90-0497', Department of Geology, University of Texas at Arlington, Texas.
3	The history of Namibia's borders is described by Lazarus Hangula in his 1993 book, The International Boundary of Namibia published by Gamsberg Macmillan; the text on pages 4 and 5 in this atlas is largely derived from that book.
4	Hangula, L, 1993, The International Boundary of Namibia, Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.
5	Confirmed by the Ministry of International Relations and Cooperation on 21 October 2020.
6	For more information, refer to: Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), 2012, 'The Definition of the Continental Shelf and Criteria for the Establishment of its Outer Limits', available at <https://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/continental_shelf_description.htm#definition>; and CLCS, 2009, 'Outer Limits of the Continental Shelf beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Baselines: Submissions to the Commission: Submission by the Republic of Namibia', available at <https://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_nam_50_2009.htm> on 12 March 2021.
7	Compiled by Celia Mendelsohn from various sources, the most important of which is Cassidy, J, 2016, A Historical Dictionary of Place Names of Namibia, Macmillan Education Namibia, Windhoek.
8	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
9	Van Sittert, L & Crawford, R, 2003, 'Historical Reconstruction of Guano Production on the Namibian Islands, 1843–1895', South African Journal of Science, 99: 13–16.

Chapter 2: Landforms and geology

1	Terrain and bathymetry maps and profiles were rendered from three sources of digital terrain data: the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM); the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Global Digital Elevation Model; and the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans' (GEBCO's) gridded bathymetry data.
2	Podgorski, JE, Green, AG, Kgotlhang, L, Kinzelbach, WK, Kalscheuer, T, Auken, E & Ngwisanyi, T, 2013, 'Paleo-megalake and Paleo-megafan in Southern Africa', Geology, 41: 1155–1158.
3	Swart, R, 2009, 'Hydrate Occurrences in the Namibe Basin, Offshore Namibia', Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 319: 73–80.
4	The islands were digitised from satellite images. As a result, areas presented in figure 2.03 may differ from those in other literature.
5	Mather, AA, Garland, GG & Stretch, DD, 2009, 'Southern African Sea-Levels: Corrections, influences and trends', African Journal of Marine Sciences, 31: 145–156; and IPCC, 2019: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [Pörtner, H-O, Roberts, DC, Masson-Delmotte, V, Zhai, P, Tignor, M, Poloczanska, E, Mintenbeck, K, Alegría, A, Nicolai, M, Okem, A, Petzold, J, Rama, B & Weyer, NM, (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK) and New York, doi: 10.1017/9781009157964.
6	See note 1.
7	Dietrich, P, Griffis, NP, Le Heron, DP, Montañez, IP, Kettler, C, Robin, C & Guillocheau, F, 2021, 'Fjord Network in Namibia: A snapshot into the dynamics of the late Paleozoic glaciation', Geology, 49(12): 1521–1526, doi: 10.1130/G49067.1. The background image is from Sentinel, European Space Agency.
8	Digistised, reproduced or rendered for the Atlas of Namibia Project from various satellite images: Sentinel; Landsat; Bing (available at <https://www.bing.com/maps/aerial>); and Google Earth (available at <https://earth.google.com>). Images on page 41 are from Google Earth or Bing.
9	Goudie A & Viles, H, 2014, 'Linear dunes of the Kalahari', in Landscapes and Landforms of Namibia, World Geomorphological Landscapes, Springer, Dordrecht, doi: 10.1007/978-94-017-8020-9_21.
10	The image was sourced from Bing, available at <https://www.bing.com/maps/aerial> in November 2016.
11	Lorenz, V & Kurszlaukis, S, 1997, 'On the Last Explosions of Carbonatite Pipe G3b, Gross Brukkaros, Namibia', Bulletin of Volcanology, 59: 1–9.
12	Peate, DW & Hawkesworth, CJ, 1996, 'Lithospheric to Asthenospheric Transition in Low-Ti Flood Basalts from Southern Paraná, Brazil', Chemical Geology, 127: 1–24.
13	Marsh, JS, Swart, RS & Phillips, D, 2003, 'Implications of a New 40Ar/39Ar Age for a Basalt Flow Interbedded with the Etjo Formation, Northeast Namibia', South African Journal of Geology, 106: 281–286.
14	Data supplied by Roger Swart and Jason Indongo. Image from Google Earth, as are those on page 48 and at the top of page 49.
15	White, S, Stollhofen H, Stanistreet, IG & Lorenz, V, 2009, 'Pleistocene to Recent Rejuvenation of the Hebron Fault, SW Namibia', Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 316: 293.
16	This section is based on information compiled by Roger Swart and Jason Indongo. For further information see Miller, RM, 2008, The Geology of Namibia, Volume 1, Ministry of Mines and Energy, Geological Survey, Windhoek.
17	The sketches on pages 53, 54, 57, 59, 60 and 61 were produced from information kindly provided by Christopher Scotese based on his Paleomap Maker project, available at <https://www.gplates.org>.
18	Dittrich, M & Sibler, S, 2010, 'Calcium Carbonate Precipitation by Cyanobacterial Polysaccharides', Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 336: 51–63.
19	Verwoerd, WH, 1993, 'Update on Carbonatites of South Africa and Namibia', South African Journal of Geology, 96: 75–95.
20	The generalised map of density of mineral deposits (figure 2.21) was derived from data used in Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>. Maps of mineral occurrence (figures 2.23–2.29) were derived from data provided by the Ministry of Mines and Energy available at <https://www.mme.gov.na/edn/>.
21	This map was downloaded from Wikimedia Commons, available at <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Karte_des_Landbesitzes_und_der_Minengerechtsame_in_Deutsch-S%C3%BCdwestafrika.jpg>.
22	Petroleum exploration licences in 2020 were obtained from data provided from the Ministry of Mines and Energy available at <https://maps.landfolio.com/Namibia/>.

Chapter 3: Climate

1	Robbins, P (Ed.) 2007, Encyclopedia of Environment and Society, SAGE Publications, Seven Oaks, CA, pp. 947–948.
2	The two images are for 21 June 2019 (winter) and for 18 December 2017 (summer), essentially at the time of the winter and summer solstices; © EUMETSAT 2017 and 2019.
3	Hutchings, L, van der Lingen, CD, Shannon, LJ, Crawford, RJM, Verheye, HMS, Bartholomae, CH, van der Plas, AK, Louw, D, Kreiner, A, Ostrowski, M, Fidel, Q, Barlow, RG, Lamont, T, Coetzee, J, Shillington, F, Veitch, J, Currie, JC & Monteiro, PMS, 2009, 'The Benguela Current: An ecosystem of four components', Progress in Oceanography, 83: 15–32.
4	Lutjeharms, JRE & Meeuwis, JM, 1987, 'The Extent and Variability of South-East Atlantic Upwelling', South African Journal of Marine Science, 5: 51–62.
5	Sea surface data were provided by Craig Risien, Oregon State University, USA, and are available at <https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oisst>. The monthly sea surface temperature fields are based on a 30-year climatology (1982–2011). For more information, see Reynolds, RW, Smith, TM, Liu, C, Chelton, DB, Casey, KS & Schlax, MG, 2007, 'Daily High-Resolution-Blended Analyses for Sea Surface Temperature', Journal of Climate, 20: 5473–5496, doi: 10.1175/2007JCLI1824.1.
6	Rouault, M, 2007, in Veitch, J (compiler), 'The Changing State of the Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem: Expert workshop on climate change and variability and impacts thereof in the BCLME region, 15–16 May 2007', Appendix 1, p. 8.
7	Source for offshore wind speed and direction as for note 5. Wind speed data used for wind roses were provided by Bicon Namibia in collaboration with the Ministry of Mines and Energy via Detlof von Oertzen at the time of the 2002 atlas (Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>). This dataset remains the most comprehensive available.
8	Seely, M & Pallett, J, 2008, Namib: Secrets of a desert uncovered, Venture Publications, Windhoek, p. 31.
9	Image A from Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth, available at <https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov>; image B from NASA Earth Observatory, available at <https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov>; images C and D from Bing via Terra Incognita (Terra MODIS True-Color Corrected Reflectance); images E and F from Google Earth.
10	See note 7 on wind speed data used for wind roses.
11	Fog data were derived from a combination of space-based sensors (2004–2017; 2006–2017; and 2003–2009) and ground stations (FOGNET, 2014–2017; and ceilometer at Swakopmund, 2017–2018). For more information see Andersen, H, Cermak, J, Solodovnik, I, Lelli, L & Vogt R, 2019, 'Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Fog and Low Clouds in the Namib Unveiled with Ground- and Space-Based Observations', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19: 4383–4392.
12	Based on one year of observations in 1984 using satellite imagery. The results of the observations were adjusted based on surface observations at several weather stations because the satellite images did not provide a distinction between low cloud and fog; these were reported in Olivier, J, 1995, 'Spatial Distribution of Fog in the Namib', Journal of Arid Environments, 29: 129–138. The disparity between the maps and ground observations at coastal locations is discussed in Andersen, H, Cermak, J, Solodovnik, I, Lelli, L & Vogt R, 2019, 'Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Fog and Low Clouds in the Namib Unveiled with Ground- and Space-Based Observations', Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19: 4383–4392.
13	Li, B, Wang, L, Kaseke, KF, Vogt, R, Li, L & Seely, MK, 2018, 'The Impact of Fog on Soil Moisture Dynamics in the Namib Desert', Advances in Water Resources, 113: 23–29.
14	Shanyengana, ES, Henschel, JR, Seely, MK & Sanderson, RD, 2002, 'Exploring Fog as a Supplementary Water Source in Namibia', Atmospheric Research, 64: 251–259; and Olivier, J, 2004, 'Fog Harvesting: An alternative source of water supply on the West Coast of South Africa', GeoJournal, 61: 203–214.
15	Mitchell, D, Henschel, JR, Hetem, RS, Wassenaar, TD, Strauss, WM, Hanahan, SA & Seely, MK, 2020, 'Fog and Fauna of the Namib Desert: Past and future', Ecosphere, 11(1), doi: 10.1002/ecs2.2996.
16	Rainfall maps were created using the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station (CHIRPS) data for the period 1981–2019. The archive is a quasi-global (50° S to 50° N), 0.05-degree-resolution grid and uses an approach that combines predictive satellite data with station data. The short report is available at <http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/832/> and the data at <https://earlywarning.usgs.gov/fews/datadownloads/Global/CHIRPS%202.0>. For the annual average rainfall map, data were aggregated by rainfall season (July–June), rather than by calendar year.
17	The station data used to obtain monthly averages came from the report, Namibia Resource Consultants, 1999, 'Rainfall Distribution in Namibia: Data analysis and mapping of spatial, temporal, and Southern Oscillation Index aspects', Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development, Windhoek, available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/search/6971>. Geographic information system (GIS) raster grid files of mean monthly rainfall, created as part of the report, were summarised for each degree square. For the coastal charts, data for each month in each degree square were amalgamated into the three-month groupings.
18	The data used to generate this contour map came from records from over 500 stations, see note 17.
19	The data used to generate this interpolated contour map came from records from over 500 ground-based stations, see note 17. The rainfall estimates from satellite sources, i.e., RFE Dekadal data from FEWS NET (Famine Early Warning Network), and those from CHIRPS (see note 16 above) become increasingly less reliable in the low-rainfall, fog-prevalent coastal belt, and were considered unsuitable for the analysis. To illustrate the coefficient of variation, consider the following example of an area with an average rainfall of 400 mm per year and a coefficient of variation of 40 per cent: A value of 40 per cent means that the standard deviation is 160 mm (400 mm x 40 ÷ 100 = 160 mm). As 66.7 per cent of values fall within one standard deviation of the mean (average), that area would see annual rainfall totals of between 240 mm (i.e. 400 mm – 160 mm) and 560 mm (i.e. 400 mm + 160 mm) in 66.7 per cent (two thirds) of all years. In the remaining third of all years, annual rainfall totals would be below 240 mm or above 560 mm.
20	Muller, A, Reason, CJC & Fauchereau, N, 2007, 'Extreme Rainfall in the Namib Desert during Late Summer 2006 and Influences of Regional Ocean Variability', International Journal of Climatology, 28: 1061–1070, doi: 10.1002/joc.1603.
21	Sources for seasons 1901–2011, Namibia Meteorological Services; and for 2012–2019, Southern African Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL) WeatherNet available at <http://www.sasscalweathernet.org/>.
22	Monthly rainfall values for specific locations were extracted from the CHIRPS raster grid dataset, see note 16.
23	Data on sunshine hours per day, summarised by month, were obtained from Namibia Meteorological Services by Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
24	Data on irradiance were obtained from the EU Science Hub's SARAH Solar Radiation Data, available at <https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/PVGIS/downloads/SARAH>.
25	Temperature data were obtained from WorldClim, free climate data for ecological modelling and GIS, Beta Version 1 (June 2016), available at <http://worldclim.org>. The data were created by Steve Fick and Robert Hijmans and represent average monthly climate data for 1970–2000. For more information, see Fick, SE & Hijmans, RI, 2017, 'Worldclim 2: New 1-km Spatial Resolution Climate Surfaces for Global Land Areas', International Journal of Climatology, doi: 10.1002/joc.5086.
26	Mean and long-term temperature data were provided by Namibia Meteorological Services at the time of the 2002 atlas (Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>).
27	Record temperatures from WorldData.info, available at <https://www.worlddata.info/africa/namibia/climate.php>.
28	Temperature data were obtained from WorldClim, see note 25.
29	Temperature data were obtained from WorldClim, see note 25.
30	Humidity data, summarised by month and time of reading (08h00, 14h00 and 21h00), were provided by Namibia Meteorological Services (NMS). The contour maps were manually interpolated using these data by Peter Hutchinson (consultant to the NMS) in 2002.
31	See note 30.
32	The Global Reference Evapotranspiration (Global-ET0) and Global Aridity Index (Global-Aridity_ET0) Version 2 dataset provides high-resolution (30 arc-seconds), global raster climate data for 1970–2000, which is related to evapotranspiration processes and rainfall deficit. The dataset is based on WorldClim 2.0, available at <https://www.worldclim.org/data/worldclim21.html>. These data were downloaded from <https://cgiarcsi.community/data/global-aridity-and-pet-database/>.
33	See note 32. For details on the methodology used to calculate Aridity Index, see <https://cgiarcsi.community/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/global-aridity-and-global-pet-methodology.pdf>.
34	The average of seven global climate models, sourced from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) and considered to simulate the climate in Africa the best, were used to project the climate for the period 2040–2060 under the representative concentration pathway 8.5 scenario. Baseline climate data for Namibia were derived from the WorldClim historical data (https://www.worldclim.org/data/worldclim21.html), which provided average monthly climate data for mean temperature and precipitation for the period 1960–1990.
35	See note 34.
36	CO₂ emission data came from Our World in Data, <https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions#co2-emissions-by-region>. General information on greenhouse gases came from <https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases>.

Chapter 4: Water

1	Data from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>; Consortium for Spatial Information's (CGIAR-CSI's) SRTM 90m Digital Elevation Database, available at <http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org>; and John Irish provided the digitised data for dams, pans and springs.
2	Background data from the United States Geological Survey's Global Multi-resolution Terrain Elevation Data 2010; river and catchment data from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
3	Elevations and profiles derived from CGIAR-CSI's SRTM 90m Digital Elevation Database, available at <http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org>.
4	River flow values were kindly supplied by the Hydrology Division of the Department of Water Affairs.
5	See note 4.
6	Nathanael, B & Mendelsohn, J, 2013, 'Notes on a Spatial Assessment of the Risk of Flooding in Eastern Caprivi', unpublished report by RAISON (Research and Information Services of Namibia) for World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Namibia.
7	Data on river flow provided by the Hydrology Division of the Department of Water Affairs.
8	See note 7.
9	This figure of the Cuvelai was adapted from: Mendelsohn, JM & Weber, B, 2011, Povos e águas da Bacia do Cuvelai em Angola e Namibia / The Cuvelai Basin: Its water and people in Angola and Namibia, Development Workshop, Luanda, and RAISON, Windhoek; and Mendelsohn, JM, Robertson, T & Jarvis, A, 2013, A Profile and Atlas of the Cuvelai–Etosha Basin, RAISON & Gondwana Collection, Windhoek.
10	No information was recorded in 13 of the 80 years, 1941–2021. The estimates were assembled from Stengel, HW, 1963, 'The Cuvelai: A contribution to the hydrography of South West Africa', Windhoek; van der Waal, 1991, 'Fish Life of the Oshana Delta in Owambo, Namibia, and the Translocation of Cunene Species', Madoqua, 17: 201–209; data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform; and from personal observations of John Mendelsohn.
11	This map was compiled from digitised data of dams, pans and springs provided by John Irish; and from data from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
12	This map is based on van Wyk, AE, Strub, H & Struckmeier, WF, (Eds), 2001, Hydrogeological Map of Namibia, with its explanation by Christelis, G & Struckmeier, W, (Eds), 2001, Groundwater in Namibia: An explanation to the hydrogeological map, both published by the Namibian Department of Water Affairs, the Geological Survey of Namibia and the Namibia Water Corporation in partnership with the Federal Institute for Geoscience and Natural Resources on behalf of the German Ministry of Economic Cooporation and Development.
13	Based on analyses of the groundwater database (GROWAS II) of the Namibian Department of Water Affairs.
14	Data were kindly supplied by the Geohydrology Division of the Department of Water Affairs. See also: Kirchner, J, 2014, 'Entwicklung und Nutzung der namibischen Wasserressourcen – Forschung von Kaisers Zeiten bis heute', Berichte der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, 46: 14–32; and Tordiffe, EAW, 1995, 'Groundwater Management with Special Reference to the Hochfeld–Imkerhof Area in the Otjozondjupa Region', report for Geohydrology Division of the Department of Water Affairs.
15	Matengu, B, Xu, Y & Tordiffe, E, 2019, 'Hydrogeological Characteristics of the Omaruru Delta Aquifer System in Namibia', Hydrogeology Journal, 27: 857–883.
16	Based on analyses of the groundwater database (GROWAS II) of the Namibian Department of Water Affairs. When delineating the respective areas, it was determined which class prevailed in a 10 km x 10 km grid cell. The distribution of the borehole classes in neighbouring cells were also taken into consideration in delineating the water quality contours. The least suitable of the four parameters indicating the overall water quality and suitability was calculated and displayed.
17	These classes follow Department of Water Affairs, 2014, 'Operational Guidelines for Drinking Water Treatment Plants', Windhoek, 130 pp. To determine the quality of groundwater, use was made of 39,004 water-sample data points collected from 29,590 different groundwater sources (boreholes, wells or springs), which were exported from the national groundwater database (GROWAS II) in May 2019. Duplicate data, those without or with incorrect coordinates, and those without values for all four parameters (TDS, SO₄, NO₃ and F) were removed; and only the latest samples were used in the analysis. The final dataset comprised 10,038 data points from which the water quality standard classes A, B, C and D were determined.
18	See note 16.
19	This information was derived using data from the Namibia Statistics Agency's (NSA's) population and housing survey reports on the 1991, 2001 and 2011 censuses and their national inter-censal demographic surveys in 2006 and 2016, available at <https://nsa.org.na/page/publications>; and from the Namibia health and demographic surveys in 2000, 2006/07 and 2013, available at <https://dhsprogram.com/publications>.
20	The distribution of households without access to clean water was derived from information from the Namibia Statistics Agency's 2011 population and housing census.
21	Integrated Water Resources Management Plan Joint Venture Namibia (IWRMPJVN), August 2010, 'Development of an Integrated Water Resources Management Plan for Namibia, Theme Report 2: The assessment of resource potential and development needs', report for the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, Windhoek.
22	Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (MAWF), January 2006, 'Executive Summary of Water Accounts for Namibia: Final report', Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, MAWF.
23	This information assembled by Hugh Bruce of Lund Consulting Engineers, Windhoek.
24	This map was derived from Namibia Water Corporation (NamWater) data, available at <https://web.archive.org/web/20080905193305/http://www.namwater.com.na/data/dams_map.html>.
25	This map was derived from data from John Irish; Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>; and NamWater (see note 24).
26	Data on farm dams provided by John Irish.
27	Data compiled from NamWater's dam monitoring bulletins.
28	See note 27.
29	Lund Consulting Engineers and Seelenbinder Consulting Engineers Joint Venture (LCE-SCE JV), November 2017, 'The Augmentation of Water Supply to the Central Area of Namibia and the Cuvelai, Part II: The Cuvelai area of Namibia, draft final report', for the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, Windhoek.
30	Data provided by the City of Windhoek.
31	Adapted from Murray, EC, 2002, 'The Feasibility of Artificial Recharge to the Windhoek Aquifer', Unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Free State.

Chapter 5: Soils

1	Marina Coetzee, who compiled the chapter on soils, acknowledges the sources provided by the Agro-Ecological Zone Team of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, especially Josephath Kutuahupira, Heiner Mouton, Heleon Beukes and Albert Calitz (soil mapping, 1996–2009); Manfred Buch, Harald Beugler-Bell and Christian Trippner (soil mapping of Etosha); Erika Michéli (support with soil classification); and Sophie Simmonds (soil mapping of Kavango). Important literature consulted, includes: Beugler-Bell, H, Buch, MW & Trippner, C, 1993, 'An Extended Soil Classification System for the Etosha National Park and Adjacent Areas in Central Northern Namibia: Based on the revised FAO legend of the soil map of the world'. Field Paper No. 1, unpublished project report for the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) & Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Research Cooperation Project, 'Environmental Change in the Etosha National Park/Northern Namibia', Az. Bu 659/4-1. Coetzee, ME, 2001, 'NAMSOTER: A SOTER database for Namibia', digital database of the Agro-Ecological Zoning Programme, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development, Windhoek. Coetzee, ME, 2009, 'Chemical Characterisation of the Soils of East-Central Namibia', MSc thesis, Stellenbosch University. Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya [Spain] (ICC), Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development [Namibia] (MAWRD) & Agency for International Co-operation [Spain] (AECI), 2000, 'Project to Support the Agro-Ecological Zoning Programme (AEZ) in Namibia, Main Report', ICC, MAWRD & AECI, Windhoek. International Union of Soil Scientists (IUSS) Working Group World Reference Base (WRB), 2015, 'World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014: International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps, 2015 update', World Soil Resources Reports, 106, FAO, Rome. Simmonds, EB, 2000, 'Soils of Kavango Region', report for the Kavango Environmental Profile Programme prepared by Interconsult for the Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek.
2	Most maps in this chapter are derived from data and information supplied by: Coetzee, ME, 2020, 'Updated Soil Map and Soil Profile Database of Namibia', unpublished data. International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC), 2020, 'SoilGrids – global gridded soil information', available at <https://www.isric.org/explore/soilgrids> on 8 June 2020. International Union of Soil Scientists (IUSS) Working Group World Reference Base (WRB), 2015, 'World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014: International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps, 2015 update', World Soil Resources Reports, 106, FAO, Rome. Ministy of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, 2009, 'Namibian Agricultural Resources Information System (NARIS)', Agro-Ecological Zoning Programme, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, Windhoek.
3	This is pH KCl, which measures the combined acidity of the soil solution and the exchangeable (reserve) acidity of the H+ adsorbed on the colloids (exchange complex). The latter is a more realistic reflection of what a plant 'experiences', than the pH H₂O which is used for soil classification. The pH H₂0 measured in water is usually about 1 pH unit higher than pH measured in KCl or CaCl2, except for some strongly weathered tropical soils with high levels of sesquioxides.
4	Leenaars, JGB, Hengl, T, Ruiperez González, M, Mendes de Jesus, JS, Heuvelink, GBM, Wolf, J, van Bussel, LGJ, Claessens, L, Yang, H & Cassman, KG, 2015, 'Root Zone Plant-Available Water Holding Capacity of the Sub-Saharan Africa Soil: Gridded functional soil information (dataset RZ-PAWHC SSA version 1.0)', ISRIC Report 2015/02, Wageningen.
5	See note 4.
6	This map was downloaded from the ISRIC data hub, <https://data.isric.org>.

Chapter 6: Vegetation

1	The detailed maps and descriptions of biomes and vegetation types are available at <www.the-eis.com>. This information was commissioned for Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>. It was based on a review and synthesis of data available since Giess' vegetation map of 1971 (Giess, W, 1971, 'A Preliminary Vegetation Map of South West Africa', Dinteria, 4: 1–114) by Antje Burke, Wynand du Plessis and Ben Strobach.
2	See note 1.
3	Andernach, M, Wyss, D & Kappas, M, 2020, 'An Evaluation of the Land Cover Classification Product Sentinel 2 Prototype Land Cover 20 m Map of Africa 2016 for Namibia', Namibian Journal of Environment, 4: 1–12.
4	This section and the maps (figures 6.05–6.08) on plant diversity, endemism and floristic groups were compiled by Herta Kolberg and Patricia Craven.
5	The section and the graphics (figures 6.09–6.14) on plant production were compiled by Cornelis van der Waal and Nicky Knox. The dry-mass production estimates were derived from the 'Copernicus Global Land Operations (CGLS) Dry Matter Productivity (DMP), 1-km Collection, Version 2' product, using SPOT-VEGETATION and PROBA-V. The product provides dry matter productivity (DMP) information, calculated from the CGLS fAPAR 1-km Collection (Version 2). The product is generated globally and made available to the user every 10 days. Data (DMP and quality flag data) from 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2019 were downloaded from the web portal: <https://land.copernicus.vgt.vito.be>. The DMP data were rescaled to kilograms per hectare and the above-ground fraction of the total production calculated (65 per cent of total biomass). To calculate individual seasonal productivity, decadal data from 1 July in one year to 30 June the next year (mean kg/ha/day per decad) were multiplied with the number of days per decad and summed.
6	The rainfall estimates are derived from CHIRPS data (see figure 3.07) within Namibia's biomes (see figure 6.02).
7	Data were kindly provided by Freya Lund. No data were collected in 2003/04.
8	Parts of this section were assembled by Loise Iyambo and Ina Wilkie of the GIZ Bush Control and Biomass Utilisation (BCBU) Project.
9	Data were kindly provided by Zander Venter. For more information refer to Venter, ZS, Cramer, MD & Hawkins, H, 2018, 'Drivers of Woody Plant Encroachment over Africa', Nature Communications, 9: 2272, doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-04616-8 and Venter, ZS, Scott, SL, Desmet, PG & Hoffman, MT, 2020, 'Application of Landsat-Derived Vegetation Trends over South Africa: Potential for monitoring land degradation and restoration', Ecological Indicators, 113: 1–9.
10	The map presents areas where change was significant. Thus zones with little or no bush cover, and where changes were minimal, have been masked in white. For more information refer to the references listed in note 9.
11	Eastment, C, 2020, 'How has Bwabwata National Park's woody vegetation changed in response to fire, rainfall and land use?', MSc thesis, University of Cape Town.
12	GIZ Bush Control and Biomass Utilisation (BCBU) Project.
13	Burnt area and ignition data (figures 6.17–6.21) were kindly provided by Marion Stellmes and David Frantz from satellite images with a pixel resolution of 500 metres x 500 metres. Active fires (figure 6.22) were detected from data having a pixel resolution of 1,000 metres x 1,000 metres; small fires could not be detected in these coarser data.
14	See <https://www.namibian.com.na/86754/archive-read/Etosha-loses-25-black-rhino-THE-largest-and-most>.
15	Barbara Curtis compiled this section and maps (figures 6.23–6.28) using the following sources for the maps: National Herbarium of Namibia (WIND), 2016, 'BRAHMS Database', WIND, National Botanical Research Institute, Windhoek; Environmental Information Service, 2019, 'Atlasing in Namibia: Atlas of alien plants', available at <http://www.the-eis.com/atlas/?q=atlas-of-alien-plants>; and Curtis, BA & Mannheimer, CA, 2005, Tree Atlas of Namibia, National Botanical Research Institute, Windhoek, available at <Treeatlas.biodiversity.org.na>.
16	Klaassen, E & Kwembeya, E, (Eds), 2013, 'A Checklist of Namibian Indigenous and Naturalised Plants', Occasional Contributions 5, National Botanical Research Institute, Windhoek.
17	The information and maps in this section were compiled by Bonny Galloway based on several sources: Irish, J, 'Namibia Biodiversity Database Website: Interpretive collation based on the combined published sources for all included taxa', available at <http://www.biodiversity.org.na/>; Millennium Challenge Corporation, 2014, The Commercialisation of Indigenous Natural Plant Products in Namibia, Venture Publications, Windhoek; Berry, C, 2003, 'Aspects of Phenology and Condition of Inland and Coastal !Nara Plants in the Namib-Naukluft Park, Namibia', Dinteria, 28: 1–18; Curtis, B & Mannheimer, C, 2005, Tree Atlas of Namibia, National Botanical Research Institute, Windhoek; Nepolo, E, Takundwa, M, Chimwamurombe, PM, Cullis, CA & Kunert, K, 2009, 'A review of Geographical Distribution of Marama Bean (Tylosema esculentum (Burchell) Schreiber) and Genetic Diversity in the Namibian Germplasm', African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(10); and data from the National Botanical Research Institute, Windhoek, provided by Herta Kolberg.

Chapter 7: Wildlife

1	Schulz, HN, Brinkhoff, T, Ferdelman, TG, Mariné, MH, Teske, A & Jorgensen, BB, 1999, 'Dense Populations of a Giant Sulfur Bacterium in Namibian Shelf Sediments', Science, 284: 493–495, doi: 10.1126/science.284.5413.493.
2	See note 1.
3	Maartens, L, 2003, 'Biodiversity', in Molloy, F & Reinikainen, T, (Eds), Namibia's Marine Environment, Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek, pp. 103–131.
4	Currie, B, Utne-Palm, AC, Salvanes, AGV, 2018, 'Winning Ways With Hydrogen Sulphide on the Namibian Shelf', Frontiers in Marine Science, 5: 341, doi: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00341.
5	Robertson, A, Jarvis, A, Mendelsohn, J & Swart, R, 2012, Namibia's Coast: Ocean riches and desert treasures, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek.
6	Hake, sardine, horse mackerel and monkfish distributions were derived from the catch distributions where fishing was done for four or more years from 2013–2017, as presented in: Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR), 2018, 'Current Status Report: National overview for marine spatial planning and knowledge baseline for Namibia's first marine spatial plan', MFMR, Windhoek. Distribution of West Coast rock lobster and deep-sea red crab was adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
7	Wilhelm, MR, Kirchner, CH, Roux, JP, Jarre, A, Iitembu, JA, Kathena, JN & Kainge, P, 2015, 'Biology and Fisheries of the Shallow-Water Hake (Merluccius capensis) and the Deep-Water Hake (M. paradoxus) in Namibia', in Arancibia, H, (Ed.), Hakes: Biology and exploitation, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 70–100, doi: 10.1002/9781118568262.
8	Da Rocha, N, Oppel, S, Prince, S, Matjila, S, Shaanika, TM, Naomab, C, Yates, O, Paterson, JRB, Shimooshili, K, Frans, E, Kashava, S & Crawford, R, 2021, 'Reduction in Seabird Mortality in Namibian Fisheries following the Introduction of Bycatch Regulation', Biological Conservation, 253: 1–8, doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108915.
9	Robertson, A, Jarvis, A, Mendelsohn, J & Swart R, 2012, Namibia's Coast: Ocean riches and desert treasures, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek.
10	Distribution data were provided by Simon Elwen of the Namibia Dolphin Project. Additional information sources used were <http://www.namibiandolphinproject.org/category/animals/species-profiles>; and Robertson, A, Jarvis, A, Mendelsohn, J & Swart, R, 2012. Namibia's Coast: Ocean riches and desert treasures, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek.
11	The map presents data from bird counts conducted between 2001 and 2020. Data for mainland sites were provided by Holger Kolberg from the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism's bird database. Data for island sites were provided by Jessica Kemper. 'Numbers of species' excludes vagrant species. For island counts the cormorants and Cape gannets were counted as breeding pairs; the number of pairs was converted to an estimated number of individuals, including breeders and non-breeders, by multiplying the pair value by three. For African penguins on islands, the average number of moulting individuals was used to estimate numbers.
12	Crawford, RJM, Ryan, PG & Williams, AJ, 1991, 'Seabird Consumption and Production in the Benguela and Western Agulhas Ecosystems', South African Journal of Marine Science, 11: 357–375.
13	See <https://www.aquarium.co.za/blog/entry/yoshi-has-reached-australia-record-breaking-turtles-long-distance>.
14	Almeida, A, Filgueiras, H, Braby, R & Tiwari, M, 2014, 'Increasing Evidence of Leatherback Migrations from Brazilian Beaches to the West African Continent', African Sea Turtle Newsletter, 1: 9–11.
15	Information on the Namibian Islands' Marine Protected Area: Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, No. 4210 of 16 February 2009. Declaration of the Namibian islands as marine reserve: 'Marine Resources Act, 2000', Government Gazette, No. 5111 of 31 December 2012. Regulations relating to the Namibian Islands' Marine Protected Area: Marine Resources Act, 2000. GIS data on ecologically or biologically significant areas were obtained from the Benguela Current Commission, available at <https://www.benguelacc.org/index.php/en/component/docman/doc_download/1076-marisma-ebsa-shp-2020>.
16	See <https://www.benguelacc.org/index.php/en/activities/2016-12-13-09-13-15/ebsas-in-the-bclme>; and <https://www.benguelacc.org/index.php/en/component/docman/doc_download/1207-marisma-ebsa-descriptions-2020-namibia>.
17	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
18	Distributions of 32 individual carnivore species were intersected with a 10-km vector grid to derive a total number of species in each grid cell. These distributions were obtained from Pallett, J, (Ed), 2021, 'Conservation Status and Red List of the Terrestrial Carnivores of Namibia', Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism, Large Carnivore Management Association of Namibia & Namibian Chamber of Environment, Windhoek. For mapping purposes, the vector grid was transformed into a polygon shapefile using a six-category legend.
19	The map was derived by combining the distribution maps of the eight species distributions in figures 7.38 and 7.40–7.46 (springbok, kudu, elephant, hartebeest, Hartmann's zebra, Burchell's zebra, gemsbok and giraffe) and the following wetland species: buffalo, common impala, hippopotamus, red lechwe, reedbuck, waterbuck, roan antelope and sable for which distribution maps were derived from aerial wetland counts undertaken by the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism. For each species, presence was assigned as an attribute in a pentad-grid shapefile. This was then rasterised and contours of species abundance were generated and smoothed into a polygon shapefile.
20	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
21	Brown, CJ, Mendelsohn, JM, Thomson & N, Boorman, M, 2017, 'Checklist and Analysis of the Birds of Namibia as of 31 January 2016', Biodiversity Observations, 8(20): 1–153, available at <http://bo.adu.org.za/content.php?id=315>.
22	Simmons, RE, Boix-Hinzen, C, Barnes, KN, Jarvis AM & Robertson, A, 1998, 'Important Bird Areas in Namibia', in Barnes, KN, (Ed), Important Bird Areas in Southern Africa, BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, pp. 295–332.
23	Simmons, RE, Brown, CJ & Kemper, J, 2015, Birds to Watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic species, Ministry of Environment and Tourism & Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek.
24	See note 22.
25	A reptile species list for Namibia was compiled by Francois Becker based on several recent publications and websites cited below. This included species that were peripheral or likely to occur in Namibia. Species with distributions that fell more than 75 per cent within Namibia were considered endemic (nationally). Species with a range of less than 10,000 square kilometres were considered localised endemics. Maps of reptile diversity and endemism were compiled from IUCN (2020) polygons and a dataset from Meiri et al. (2017), based on the species lists. A few distributions were added from species-specific publications, listed below. Distribution polygons were overlain using package raster (Hijmans, 2020), Program R. Bauer, AM & Branch, WR, 1995, 'Geographic Variation in Western Populations of the Pachydactylus punctatus Complex (Reptilia: Gekkonidae)', Tropical Zoology, 8: 69–84. Branch, WR, 1998, Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa, New Holland Publishers. Branch, WR, 2007, 'A New Species of Tortoise of the Genus Homopus (Chelonia: Testudinidae) from Southern Namibia', African Journal of Herpetology, 56: 1–21. Childers, JL, Kirchhof, S & Bauer, AM, 2021, 'Lizards of a Different Stripe: Phylogenetics of the Pedioplanis undata species complex (Squamata, Lacertidae), with the description of two new species', Zoosystematics and Evolution, 97: 249–272, doi: 10.3897/zse.97.61351. Hallermann, J, Ceríaco, LMP, Schmitz, A, Ernst, R, Conradie, W, Verburgt, L, Marques, MP & Bauer, AM, 2020, 'A Review of the Angolan House Snakes, Genus Boaedon Duméril, Bibron and Duméril (1854) (Serpentes: Lamprophiidae), with Description of Three New Species in the Boaedon fuliginosus (Boie, 1827) Species Complex', African Journal of Herpetology, 69: 29–78, doi: 10.1080/21564574.2020.1777470. Herrmann, HW & Branch, WR, 2013, 'Fifty Years of Herpetological Research in the Namib Desert and Namibia with an Updated and Annotated Species Checklist', Journal of Arid Environments, 93: 94–115. Hijmans, RJ, 2020, 'Raster: Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling, R package version 3.1-5, available at <https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=raster>. IUCN, 2020, 'The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2020-3', Available at <https://www.iucnredlist.org>. Marques, MP, Ceríaco, LMP, Buehler, MD, Bandeira, SA, Janota, JM & Bauer, AM, 2020, 'A Revision of the Dwarf Geckos, Genus Lygodactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae), from Angola, with the Description of Three New Species', Zootaxa, 4853: 301–352, doi: 10.11646/zootaxa.4853.3.1. Meiri, S, Roll, U, Grenyer, R, Feldman, A, Novosolov, M & Bauer, AM, 2017, 'Data from the global distribution of tetrapods reveals a need for targeted reptile conservation', Dryad, Dataset, doi: 10.5061/dryad.83s7k. Parrinha, D, Marques, MP, Heinicke, MP, Khalid, F, Parker, KL, Tolley, KA, Childers, JL, Conradie, W, Bauer, AM & Ceríaco, LMP, 2021, 'A Revision of Angolan Species in the Genus Pedioplanis Fitzinger (Squamata: Lacertidae), with the Description of a New Species', Zootaxa 5032: 1–46, doi: 10.11646/zootaxa.5032.1.1. Uetz, P, Freed, P & Hošek, J, (Eds), 2020, 'The Reptile Database', available at <http://www.reptile-database.org>. Weinell, JL & Bauer, AM, 2018, 'Systematics and Phylogeography of the Widely Distributed African Skink Trachylepis varia Species Complex', Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 120: 103–117.
26	An amphibian species list for Namibia was compiled by Francois Becker based on several recent publications and websites cited below. These included species that were peripheral or likely to occur in Namibia. Species with distributions that were more than 75 per cent within Namibia were considered endemic (nationally). Species with a range of less than 10,000 square kilometres were considered localised endemics. Maps of amphibian diversity and endemism were compiled using distribution polygons from the IUCN Red List (2020) based on the compiled species lists, to which some peripheral distributions from Channing and Rödel (2019) were added. Distributions of the pygmy toads are still problematic due to taxonomic uncertainties. These distributions were manually adapted from the IUCN (2020) distributions to Francois' local knowledge, based on unpublished call recordings and genetic sequences. Distribution polygons were overlain using package raster (Hijmans 2020), Program R. Channing, A & Rödel, M, 2019, Field Guide to the Frogs and Other Amphibians of Africa, Penguin Random House, Cape Town. Frost, DR, 2021, 'Amphibian Species of the World: An online reference, Version 6.1 Electronic Database', American Museum of Natural History, New York, available at <https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/index.php>. Hijmans, RJ, 2020, 'Raster: Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling, R package version 3.1-5, available at <https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=raster>. IUCN, 2020, 'The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2020-3', Available at <https://www.iucnredlist.org>.
27	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
28	Jacobs, FJ, Næsje, TF, Ulvan, EM, Weyl, OL, Tiyeho, D, Hay, CJ, O'Brien, GC & Downs, CT, 2019, 'Implications of the Movement Behaviour of African Tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus for the Design of Freshwater Protected Areas', Journal of Fish Biology, 96: 1260–1268, doi: 10.1111/jfb.14158.
29	Schematic map based on general patterns described by John Irish in the Namibia Biodiversity Database, available at <http://www.biodiversity.org.na>. John Irish also provided identifications of invertebrates in the photos.
30	Data and information were provided by TL Bird of the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, South Africa (previously of the National Museum of Namibia, Windhoek) and M Marais, E van den Berg, A Swart and C Girgan of the Plant Health and Protection, Agricultural Research Council, South Africa. The nematode diversity reported here is of plant-feeding nematodes of the families Anguinidae, Criconematidae, Dolichodoridae, Heteroderidae, Hoplolaimidae, Longidoridae, Pratylenchidae, Trichodoridae and Tylenchulidae. The species Hemicycliophora popaensis, Neodolichodorus paralongicaudatus, Paralongidorus namibiensis, Telotylenchus dewaeli, Tylenchorhynchus kidwali, T. namibiensis and Xiphinema capriviense are endemic to Namibia. The information was obtained from 190 soil samples collected between 1965 and 2004. Several of the samples were collected in the mid-1980s as part of a survey of plant-feeding nematodes associated with grain crops. During 2004, as part of the Namibia Biodiversity Programme, a field trip was undertaken in which 149 soil samples for nematode analyses were collected. The nematode map was generated by Alwyn Esterhuizen.
31	Solifuge data were compiled by TL Bird of Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, South Africa (previously of the National Museum of Namibia, Windhoek). Location data were compiled from georeferenced locality data in the literature, and data associated with solifuges in various natural history collections. Specimens that were not identified to species level were excluded. The data were summarised to give the number of species per quarter-degree square. From this, a raster was generated using the inverse distance weighted interpolation tool in ArcGIS. Contours were generated at intervals of two species. Referenced literature included various publications relating to individual species as well as: Harvey, MS, 2003, Catalogue of the Smaller Arachnid Orders of the World, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia; and Wharton, RA, 1981, 'Namibian Solifugae (Arachnida)', Cimbebasia, Memoir 5: 1–87. Natural history collections included those from: National Museum of Namibia, Windhoek; Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, Pretoria; National Collection of Arachnids, Agricultural Research Council (Plant Health Protection), Pretoria; Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town; American Museum of Natural History, New York; and Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt.
32	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
33	The map was derived from a compilation of the numbers of tenebrionid species per half-degree square across the arid parts of southern Africa. These were compiled from overview distribution records of 579 species for which data were available, representing approximately 90 per cent of the species which occur in the area. A kernel analysis was applied to give a proxy for the number of species likely to occur in an area. Data were provided by Joh Henschel from studies described in the following papers: De Moor, PP, 1970, 'Monograph of the Praeugenina (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae, Strongyliini)', Transvaal Museum Memoir, 17, 1–203. Drinkwater, TW, Giliomee, JH & Pringle, KL, 1990, 'The Geographical Distribution of False Wireworms, Somaticus Species (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), Associated with Maize in South Africa', Journal of the Entomological Society of Southern Africa, 53: 127–136. Endrödy-Younga, S, 1996, 'Revision of the Tribe Caenocrypticini (Col. Tenebrionidae, Tentyriinae), Monographs of the Transvaal Museum, 11: 1–74. Endrödy-Younga, S, 2000, 'Revision of the Subtribe Gonopina (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae, Opatrinae, Platynotini)', Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 37: 1–54. Koch, C, 1955, Monograph of the Tenebrionidae of Southern Africa: Tentyriinae, Molurini, Trachynotina: Somaticus Hope, Vol. 1', Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.Penrith, M-L, 1977, 'The Zophosini (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) of Western Southern Africa', Cimbebasia Memoir, 3: 7–291. Penrith, M-L, 1979, 'Revision of the Western Southern African Adesmiini (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)', Cimbebasia, Series A, 5: 1–94. Penrith, M-L, 1982, 'The Genus Calaharena Koch (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae: Opatrini: Stizopina)', Cimbebasia, Series A, 5: 251–255. Penrith, M-L, 1986, 'Relationships in the Tribe Adesmiini (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and a Revision of the Genus Stenodesia Reitter', Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 34(13): 275–302. Penrith, M-L, 1987, 'Revision of the Genus Tarsocnodes Gebien (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae: Molurini) and Description of a Monotypical Genus from the Kalahari', Cimbebasia, Series A, 7: 235–270. Penrith, M-L & Endrödy-Younga, S, 1994, 'Revision of the Subtribe Cryptochilina (Col. Tenebrionidae, Cryptochilini)', Monographs of the Transvaal Museum, 9: 1–144.
34	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>. Loronzo Prendini provided helpful comments on the text, as well as identification of scorpions in the photos.
35	Adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
36	Information on birds was derived from an analysis of records collected by the Southern African Bird Atlas Project. Sixteen species of birds considered to be endemic to Namibia (with 90 per cent or more of their range in Namibia) were included. A grid file (at 5-km cell size) was created from point data (i.e., centroids of quarter-degree squares) using a kriging interpolator. The shapefile was created from the grid file once suitable class intervals were identified.
37	Information on endemic birds, their status and distributions came from Jarvis, A & Robertson, T, 1997, 'Endemic Birds of Namibia: Evaluating their status and mapping biodiversity hotspots', Directorate of Environmental Affairs Research Discussion Paper, 14: 1–104, DEA, Windhoek; and Simmons, RE, Brown, CJ & Kemper, J, 2015, Birds to Watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic species, Ministry of Environment and Tourism and Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek.
38	See note 25.
39	See note 26.
40	Schematic map based on general patterns described by John Irish in the Namibia Biodiversity Database, available at <http://www.biodiversity.org.na>.
41	See note 34.
42	Bartlam-Brooks, HLA, Bonyongo, MC & Harris, S, 2011, 'Will Reconnecting Ecosystems Allow Long-Distance Mammal Migrations to Resume? A case study of a zebra Equus burchelli migration in Botswana', Oryx, 45(2): 210–216.
43	Information and data on the distribution and population estimates for carnivores in Namibia were obtained from Pallett, J, (Ed), 2021, 'Conservation Status and Red List of the Terrestrial Carnivores of Namibia', Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism, Large Carnivore Management Association of Namibia & Namibian Chamber of Environment, Windhoek. Africa distribution data is from 'IUCN Red List: Spatial Data download', available at <https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/spatial-data-download>.
44	Melzheimer, J, Streif, S, Wasiolka, B, Fischer, M, Thalwitzer, S, Heinrich, SK, Weigold, A, Hofer, H & Wachter, B, 2018, 'Queuing, Takeovers, and Becoming a Fat Cat: Long-term data reveal two distinct male spatial tactics at different life-history stages in Namibian cheetahs', Ecosphere, 9(6), doi: 10.1002/ecs2.2308.
45	See note 43.
46	Shortridge, GC, 1934, The Mammals of South West Africa, William Heinemann Ltd., London.
47	Stander, PE, 2019, 'Lions (Panthera leo) Specialising on a Marine Diet in the Skeleton Coast National Park, Namibia', Namibian Journal of Environment, 3 A: 1–10.
48	See note 43.
49	See note 43.
50	See note 43.
51	See note 43.
52	Ingrid Wiesel, Brown Hyena Research Project.
53	Adaptive kernel home ranges were derived from data for brown and spotted hyenas fitted with GPS and satellite collars as part of a long-term monitoring study in southwestern Namibia: Wiesel, I, Karthun-Strijbos, S & Jänecke, I, 2019, 'The Use of GPS Telemetry Data to Study Parturition, Den Location and Occupancy in the Brown Hyaena', African Journal of Wildlife Research, 49(1): 1–11, doi: 10.3957/056.049.0001.
54	See note 43.
55	See note 43.
56	The maps presented are adapted from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>. More recent data from the following sources were used to update the maps: game counts undertaken in communal conservancies since 2001; game counts undertaken in the Greater Fish River Canyon landscape and the Greater Sossusvlei Namib landscape; public participation atlassing through the citizen-science component of the-eis.com; and road counts undertaken in the Tsau \|\|Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park. As numbers for game species vary considerably over time as a result of habitat condition related to dry/wet periods, relative densities, rather than actual densities, are indicated in the legends.
57	See note 56.
58	Annual game counts in conservancies on communal land began in 2001. This has been a collaborative effort between the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism and various non-governmental organisations in the conservation sphere; for further information, see <www.nacso.org.na>. Plant productivity was measured using NDVI (normalised difference vegetation index).
59	See note 56.
60	See note 56.
61	See note 56.
62	See note 56.
63	See note 56. Information in the text is from Gosling, LM, Muntifering, J, Kolberg, H, Uiseb, K & King, SRB, 2019, 'Equus zebra ssp. hartmannae: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T7958A45171819, doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T7958A45171819.en.
64	See note 56.
65	The map of elephant distribution in 2020 was obtained from the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT). Information on elephant numbers was obtained from MEFT, 2020, 'Draft Elephant Management Plan'. For more information, see: <https://conservationnamibia.com/blog/b2021-elephant-numbers.php>.
66	Data were provided by the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism. The data are from eight adult female zebras collared on the border of Namibia and Botswana. See Naidoo, R, Chase, M, Beytell, P, Du Preez, P, Landen, K, Stuart-Hill, G & Taylor, R, 2016, 'A Newly Discovered Wildlife Migration in Namibia and Botswana is the Longest in Africa', Oryx, 50(1): 138–146, doi: 10.1017/S0030605314000222.
67	Satellite tracking data were provided by the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism.
68	Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT), 2017, 'Wildlife Census of Namibia's North East Rivers', a poster presenting results of aerial wetland counts undertaken by MEFT.
69	Movement data comes from a small number of blue cranes fitted with satellite trackers, radio-trackers and rings by the Namibia Crane Working Group. Information in the text was obtained from: Allan, DG, 2005, 'Blue Crane Anthropoides paradiseus', in Hockey, PAR, Dean, WRJ & Ryan, PG, (Eds), 2005, Roberts Birds of Southern Africa, VIIth Edition, The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town. Scott, A, Scott, M, Altwegg, R, Böhme, H, Brain, C, Gariseb, S, Guim, S, Kapner, J, Kolberg, H, Mendelsohn, J, Shatumbu, G, Simmons, R, Versfeld, W & Vilho, A, 2019, 'Conservation Aspects of the Blue Crane in Namibia', poster presentation, Etosha 112 and Counting Symposium, Namibia. Simmons, RE, Brown, CJ & Kemper, J, 2015, Birds to Watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic species, Ministry of Environment and Tourism and Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek. Simmons, RE, Trewby, I & Trewby, M, 1996, 'Are Etosha's Blue Cranes declining?', African Wildlife, 50: 32–34.
70	Jacobs, FJ, Hay, CH, Jacobs, PG & Næsje, TF, 2019, 'A Baseline Study of the Critically Endangered Cave-Dwelling Catfish Clarias cavernicola in Namibia', Report MFMR-RIIWS1-2019-06-30, available at <https://n-c-e.org/sites/default/files/2019-12/Final_report_Clarias%20cavernicola_November_2019.pdf>.
71	Data on wildlife conflicts in communal conservancies come from the Event Book database (NACSO), which includes summary date on a wide range of natural resource measures in conservancies. The Event Book is a monitoring tool for conservancies with information collected through a collaboration between Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Organisations (NACSO), WWF, the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism and the current 86 registered communal conservancies. For more information see <http://www.nacso.org.na>. Human–wildlife conflict data are split into damage type and conflict species.
72	See note 71.
73	See note 71.
74	Map data were provided by Andrea Santangeli. Information in the text and photo caption was derived from: Craig, CA, Thomson, RL, Girardello, M & Santangeli, A, 2019, 'The Drivers and Extent of Poison Use by Namibia's Communal Farmers: Implications for averting the African vulture crisis', Ambio, 48: 913–922. Santangeli, A, Arkumarev, V, Komen, L, Bridgeford, P & Kolberg, H, 2017, 'Unearthing Poison Use and Consequent Anecdotal Vulture Mortalities in Namibia's Commercial Farmland: Implications for conservation', Ostrich: Journal of African Ornithology, 88(2): 147–154. Santangeli, A, Arkumarev, V, Rust, N & Girardello, M, 2016, 'Understanding, Quantifying and Mapping the Use of Poison by Commercial Farmers in Namibia: Implications for scavengers' conservation and ecosystem health', Biological Conservation, 204(B): 205–211.
75	Information on the conservation status of vultures in Namibia is from Simmons, RE, Brown, CJ & Kemper, J, 2015, Birds to Watch in Namibia: Red, rare and endemic species, Ministry of Environment and Tourism & Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek.
76	Ministry of Environment and Tourism & Ministry of Safety and Security, 2019, 'Combatting Wildlife Crime in Namibia: Annual report, 2019', MEFT & MSS, Windhoek. Note that the map indicates the regions in which cases were registered, which is not necessarily where the crime was committed. Cases are generally registered at the police station nearest to the place of arrest which may be in a different region from where the crime took place.
77	Namibian Pangolin Working Group, 2021, 'Pangolins in Namibia', poster, available at <https://n-c-e.org/sites/default/files/2021-07/Pangolins%20in%20Namibia%20Poster.pdf>.
78	Egevang, C, Stenhouse, IJ, Phillips, RA, Petersen, A, Fox, JW & Silk, JRD, 2010, 'Tracking of Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea Reveals Longest Animal Migration', Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences USA, 107(5): 2078–2081.
79	Meyburg, B-U, Scheller, W & Meyburg, C, 1995a, 'Zug und Überwinterung des Schreiadlers Aquila pomarina: Satellitentelemetrische Untersuchungen', Journal für Ornithologie, 136: 401–422.
80	Kumar, RS, 2015, 'Tracking the Incredible Journey of the Amur Falcon', Conservation India, available at <https://www.conservationindia.org/articles/tracking-the-incredible-journey-of-the-amur-falcon>.
81	Cannarella, S, Dell'Omo, G, Monti, F & Catoni C, 2019, 'GPS Tracking of European Rollers Coracias garrulus Breeding in Central Italy', poster, Ornis italica, unpublished. See also <http://www.rfi.fr/en/environment/20190908-european-roller-bird-southern-africa-italy-incredible-8-month-journey-migration>.
82	Dias, MP, Granadeiro, JP & Catry, P, 2012, 'Do Seabirds Differ from Other Migrants in their Travel Arrangements? On route strategies of Cory's shearwater during its trans-equatorial journey', PLoS ONE, 7(11): e49376, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049376.
83	Reneerkens, J, Versluijs, TSL, Piersma, T, Alves, JA, Boorman, M, Corse, C, Gilg, O, Hallgrimsson, GT, Lang, J, Loos, B, Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y, Nuoh, AA, Potts, PM, ten Horn, J & Lok, T, 2020, 'Low Fitness at Low Latitudes: Wintering in the tropics increases migratory delays and mortality rates in an Arctic breeding shorebird', Journal of Animal Ecology, 89: 691–703, doi: 10.1111/1365-2656.13118.
84	Meyburg, B-U, Mendelsohn, JM, Ellis, DH, Smith, DG, Meyburg, C & Kemp, AC, 1995, 'Year-round Movements of Wahlberg's Eagle Aquila wahlbergi Tracked by Satellite', Ostrich, 66: 135–140.
85	Mendelsohn, J & Diekmann, M, 2007, 'Some Findings from Tracking Cape Vultures in Namibia', unpublished manuscript.
86	McCulloch, G, Aebischer, A & Irvine, K, 2003, 'Satellite Tracking of Flamingos in Southern Africa: The importance of small wetlands for management and conservation, Oryx, 37(4): 480–483, doi: 10.1017/S0030605303000851.
87	Braby, J, 2010, 'New Migration Records for the Damara Tern Sterna balaenarum', Ornithological Observations, 1: 38–41; and Braby, J, 2011, 'The Biology and Conservation of the Damara Tern in Namibia', PhD thesis, University of Cape Town.

Chapter 8: Land

1	Namibia is the third most sparsely populated country in the world (with ~3.2 people per square kilometre in 2021), after Mongolia and Australia. All three of these countries have large expanses of arid and barren land.
2	Weber, BM & Mendelsohn, JM, 2017, Informal Settlements in Namibia, Their Nature and Growth: Exploring ways to make Namibian urban development more socially just and inclusive, Development Workshop Namibia, Windhoek.
3	Enkono, SG, Kalundu, SK & Thomas, B, 2013, 'Analysis of Factors Influencing Cattle Off-take Rate and Marketing in Ndiyona Constituency of Kavango Region, Namibia', Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 5(9): 201–206; Mendelsohn, J, 2006, Farming Systems in Namibia, RAISON, Windhoek; Togarepi, C, Thomas, B & Kankono, M, 2016, 'Cattle Marketing Constraints and Opportunities in North-Central Communal Areas of Namibia, Ohangwena Region', Livestock Research for Rural Development, 28(7), available at < http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd28/7/toga28132.html>; and Togarepi, C, Thomas, B & Hilka Mika, N, 2018, 'Why Goat Farming in Northern Communal Areas of Namibia is not Commercialised: The case of Ogongo Constituency', Journal of Sustainable Development, 11(6): 236–245.
4	Data were adapted from Mendelsohn, J, 2006, Farming systems in Namibia, RAISON, Windhoek, using the Namibia Agricultural Union farm database, 2020.
5	Data from survey reports of the Directorate of Veterinary Services, 1971–2018.
6	See note 5.
7	See note 5.
8	Data sourced from Katharina Dierkes; NACSO (Namibian Association of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Support Organisations); Mendelsohn, JM & el Obeid, S, 2003, Sand and Water: A profile of the Kavango Region of Namibia, Struik, Cape Town; Mendelsohn, J, el Obeid, S & Roberts, C, 2000, A Profile of North-Central Namibia, Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek; Mendelsohn, J & Roberts, C, 1997, An Environmental Profile and Atlas of Caprivi, Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Windhoek.
9	These refer to trees with a diameter of more than five centimetres at breast height, which is a standard measure for trees. Inventories by the Directorate of Forestry provide the following numbers of trees per hectare as tree density: Oshana Region, 6.3; Ongandjera Community Forest, 10.2; Omusati Region, 32.6; Uukwaludhi Community Forest, 53.4; Nyae Nyae South, 79.0; Zambezi Region, 86.7; Nyae Nyae North, 95.7; Nkurenkuru, 102.4; and Uukolonkadhi Community Forest, 294.6.
10	Data from the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism supplied by Pauline Lindeque.
11	See note 10.
12	Based on data supplied by Tracks4Africa, and Turpie, J & Letley, G, 2018, 'Improving State Protected Area Financing through Pricing and Institutional Changes, in AE Foundation Namibia, TEEB Study: The development of strategies to maintain and enhance the protection of ecosystem services in Namibia's state, communal and freehold lands, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek.
13	Ministry of Environment, Tourism and Forestry (MEFT), 2019, 'Tourist Statistical Report, 2019', MEFT, Windhoek.
14	The boundaries of state-protected areas, conservancies and community forests were generated from coordinate tables and descriptions in Namibia's Government Gazette. The boundaries of concessions and private reserves were generated from boundary descriptions supplied by the individual entities and using from the Namibia Agricultural Union's land database. The Ramsar sites were obtained from <https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/namibia> and the World Heritage sites from <https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/na>.
15	Assembled from multiple sources and personal communications, including Berry, HH, 1997, 'Historical Review of the Etosha Region and Its Subsequent Administration as a National Park', Madoqua, 20: 3–12; Bridgeford, P, 2008, 'One Hundred Years of Conservation: From Game Reserve No. 3 to Namib-Naukluft Park', Journal of the Namibia Scientific Society, 56; information in the park profiles issued by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, available at <http://www.met.gov.na/dpwm/parkprofiles.htm>; the Government Gazette; and the Natural Resources Working Group, available at <http://www.nacso.org.na/resources>.
16	See note 14.
17	See note 14.
18	See note 14 and 'World Database on Protected Areas', available at <https://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources-and-data/wdpa>.
19	Data were provided by the Ministry of Mines and Energy and Lauren Davidson of the Namibian Chamber of Mines.
20	Ministry of Mines and Energy.
21	Data were from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>; and the townlands were digitised by Katharina Dierkes.
22	'Village' is a category of urban area declared in terms of the Urban and Regional Planning Act, 5 of 2018, which makes provision for four types of urban areas: municipality, town, village and settlement area. 'Village' is also often used in the vernacular to refer to a physical and social aggregation of homes in communal areas that do not comprise an urban area.
23	The boundaries were digitised from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform's collection of orthophotos. The background images are from the European Space Agency's Sentinel satellites.
24	Data were from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>; and the recent townland data were digitised by Katharina Dierkes.
25	From data in Namibia Statistics Agency's 'Inter-Censal Demographic Survey, 2016 Report' and 'Population and Housing Census, 2011' that were analysed and published in: Weber, BM & Mendelsohn, JM, 2017, Informal Settlements in Namibia, Their Nature and Growth: Exploring ways to make Namibian urban development more socially just and inclusive, Development Workshop Namibia, Windhoek.
26	Data sources were obtained on protected areas from the Natural Resources Working Group, available at <http://www.nacso.org.na/resources>; on communal lands from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform; and other parcels from the Namibia Agricultural Union's land database. Townlands were digitised by Katharina Dierkes.
27	All Namibian land belongs to the state unless it is formally owned by a private person, private business or private institution. By definition, all unsurveyed land is state land, while surveyed state land may or may not have its ownership registered. Title registrations for state land are typically in the name of a public institution, such as the central government, a ministry, regional council, statutory body or local authority.
28	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2018, Namibia Land Statistics: Pre-independence land allocation in Namibia, NSA, Windhoek.
29	Data sources were obtained on customary rights and leaseholds from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform. For the rest, see note 26.
30	Occupational land rights can also be granted to institutions providing public services on communal land; this special form of tenure covers few properties.
31	Mendelsohn, JM & Nghitevelekwa, R, 2017, 'An Enquiry into Land Markets in Namibia's Communal Areas', report for Namibia Nature Foundation and Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform.
32	Data on customary rights and leaseholds were obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform; townlands were digitised by Katharina Dierkes. Images are from Google Earth.
33	Authority over land reform and resettlement changed several times after independence: from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform, Resettlement and Rehabilitation, to the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement, to the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform. A Communal Land Board has the following members from the board's area of responsibility: a representative of each traditional authority; one person representing the organised farming community; one representative of conservancies; the Regional Officer; two women who farm; two women having experience relevant to the functions of the board; and a representative of each minister responsible for regional government, land matters, environmental matters, and agriculture.
34	Based on accounts in: Hays, J & Hitchcock, R, 2020, 'Land and Resource Rights in the Tsumkwe Conservancies – Nyae Nyae and N‡a Jaqna', in Odendaal, W & Werner, W (eds), in Neither Here nor There: Indigeneity, marginalisation and land rights in post-independence Namibia, Legal Assistance Centre, Windhoek; Kashululu, R-MP & Hebinck, P, 2020, 'The Fencing Question in Namibia: A case study in Omusati Region', in Odendaal, W & Werner, W, (Eds), Neither Here nor There: Indigeneity, marginalisation and land rights in post-independence Namibia, Legal Assistance Centre, Windhoek; Mendelsohn, JM, 2008, 'Customary and Legislative Aspects of Land Registration and Management on Communal Land in Namibia', report for the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement, Windhoek; Mendelsohn, JM, 2013, 'Survey of Kavango Farms', report for the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement, Windhoek; Mendelsohn, JM, Nakamhela, U, Werner, W & Jones, BJ, 2011, 'A Review of Policies Concerning Tenure in Communal Areas of Namibia', report for the Millennium Challenge Account and Ministry of Lands and Resettlement, Windhoek; and Mendelsohn, JM & Nghitevelekwa, R, 2017, 'An Enquiry into Land Markets in Namibia's Communal Areas', report for the Namibia Nature Foundation and the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform.
35	See note 22.
36	Data from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform.
37	Data from the Namibia Statistics Agency, available at <https://nsa.org.na/page/gis-data-requests>.
38	Institute for Public Policy Research, November 2015, 'Regional Governors: The good, the bad and the ugly – do the benefits of appointment by the president outweigh the loss of democratic representation?', Election Watch, Briefing Paper No. 2, available at <https://ippr.org.na/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Briefing%202%20Regional%20Governors_0.pdf>.
39	See note 37.
40	Mendelsohn, JM, 2008, 'Customary and Legislative Aspects of Land Registration and Management on Communal Land in Namibia', report for the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement, Windhoek; Mendelsohn, JM & Nghitevelekwa, R, 2017, 'An enquiry into Land Markets in Namibia's Communal Areas', report for the Namibia Nature Foundation and the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform, Windhoek.
41	See note 26.
42	The 12,382 parcels of agricultural (commercial) land comprises 7,506 farms (61 per cent) and 4,876 portions of farms (39 per cent), from Namibia Statistics Agency, 2018, <em>Namibia Land Statistics: Pre-independence land allocation in Namibia</em>, NSA, Windhoek.
43	Data from Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>; and Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2018, Namibia Land Statistics: Pre-independence land allocation in Namibia, NSA, Windhoek.
44	Wallace, M & Kinahan, J, 2011, A History of Namibia, C Hurst & Co, London.
45	Data from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform.
46	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2018, Namibia Land Statistics: Pre-independence land allocation in Namibia, NSA, Windhoek.
47	Data from the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform.
48	See note 46.

Chapter 9: People

1	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2014, Namibia 2011 Census Population Projections, 2011–2041, NSA, Windhoek, available at <https://cms.my.na/assets/documents/p19dn4fhgp14t5ns24g4p6r1c401.pdf>.
2	The term 'San' is adopted because most Namibians believe it to be less offensive than ‘Bushman’. For the record, however, other people consider the term 'San' to be derogatory.
3	Kim, H, Ratan, A, Perry, G et al., 2014, 'Khoisan Hunter-Gatherers Have Been the Largest Population throughout Most of Modern-Human Demographic History', Nature Communications, 5, 5692, doi: 10.1038/ncomms6692.
4	Densities estimated from mapped archaeological sites provided by John Kinahan for the 2002 atlas (Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>).
5	Heine, K, 2005, 'Holocene Climate of Namibia: A review based on geoarchives', African Study Monographs, Supplementary Issue 30: 119–130, doi: 10.14989/68456.
6	The text and map and images in this section on rock art were compiled by Johannes Behringer, Peter Breunig and Joe Walter.
7	The Apollo 11 Cave, was supposedly so named by German archaeologist Wolfgang Erich Wendt who was working in the cave when he heard of the successful return to Earth of the Apollo 11 crew on 24 July 1969, after they had landed on the moon.
8	See note 6.
9	Adapted from a map and text kindly compiled by Jens Wiedow.
10	Much of the information here was summarised from Robertson, T, Jarvis, A, Mendelsohn, JM & Swart, R, 2012, Namibia's Coast: Ocean riches and desert treasures, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek.
11	Werz, BEJS, 2009, 'The Oranjemund Shipwreck, Namibia', Journal of Namibian Studies, 6: 81–106; and Smith, R, 2009, 'Shipwreck in the Forbidden Zone', National Geographic, October 2009, available at <http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2009/10/shipwreck/smith-text>.
12	Shaamhula, L & Hipondoka, M, 2018, 'The Cuvelai-Etosha Basin: An environmental and climatic linkage to the operations of the warring parties in the 1966–1989 war for Namibian independence', in Bezuidenhout, J & Smit, H, (Eds), African Military Geosciences: Military history and the physical environment, Sun Press, Stellenbosch, pp. 211–224.
13	For more information, see Dierks, K, 1999, Chronology of Namibian History, Namibia Scientific Society, Windhoek.
14	This section benefited from the advice and work of Anna-Maria Fehn and Jorge Rocha, and their studies of linguistics and genetic information.
15	For example, Bajic, V, Barbieri, C, Hübner, A, Güldemann, T, Naumann, C, et al., 2018, 'Genetic Structure and Sex-Biased Gene Flow in the History of Southern African Populations', American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 167: 656–671; Güldemann, T, 2008, 'A Linguist's View: Khoe-Kwadi speakers as the earliest food-producers of southern Africa', Southern African Humanities, 20: 93–132; and Haacke, WHG, 2008, 'Linguistic Hypotheses on the Origin of Namibian Khoekhoe Speakers', Southern African Humanities, 20: 163–177.
16	Based on analyses of population growth in central-northern Namibia, Kavango West and Kavango East, and multiple accounts of major migrations in, for example: Brambilla, C, 2007, 'Borders and Identities/Border Identities: The Angolan–Namibian border and the plurivocality of the Kwanyama identity, Journal of Borderlands Studies, 22: 21–38; Brinkman, I, 2019, 'War, Peace and Nationhood: In between south-east Angola and Rundu, Namibia (1960s–2012)', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 53: 47–65; Danielsson, E, 2016, 'Crossing Borders, Creating Boundaries: Identity making of the Angolan diaspora residing in the border town of Rundu, northern Namibia', Master's Thesis, University of Stockholm; Mendelsohn, JM, el Obeid, S & Roberts, C, 2000, A profile of north-central Namibia, Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek; and Siiskonen, H, 2009, 'Land Use Rights and Gender in Ovamboland, North-Central Namibia since the 1930s', Fennia, 187: 5–15.
17	Mendelsohn, JM & Weber, B, 2011, Povos e águas da Bacia do Cuvelai em Angola e Namibia / The Cuvelai Basin: Its water and people in Angola and Namibia, Development Workshop, Luanda, & RAISON, Windhoek.
18	Based on Oliveira, S, Fehn, AM, Aço, T, Lages, F, Gayà-Vidal, M, Pakendorf, B, Stoneking, M & Rocha, J, 2018, 'Matriclans Shape Populations: Insights from the Angolan Namib Desert into the maternal genetic history of southern Africa', American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 165: 518–535; Wallace, M, 2011, A History of Namibia – from the beginning to 1990, Hurst & Company, London; and Williams, F-N, 1991, Pre-Colonial Communities of Southwestern Africa: A history of Owambo kingdoms, 1600–1920, National Archives of Namibia, Windhoek.
19	Grollemund, R, Branford, S, Bostoen, K, Meade, A, Venditti, C & Pagel, M, 2015, 'Bantu Expansion Shows that Habitat Alters the Route and Pace of Human Dispersals', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112: 13296–13301.
20	South-West Africa Administrator's Office, 1918, Report on the Natives of South West Africa and their Treatment by Germany, His Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
21	Based on Bollig, M & Möhlig, WJ, 1997, “When war came the cattle slept …”: Himba oral traditions, Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln; Eggers, H, 1996, 'Das Ovamboland: Sonderstellung und Probleme eines Dichtegebietes in Südwestafrika', Geographische Rundschau, 12; Fisch, M, 1999, The Secessionist Movement in the Caprivi: A historical perspective, Namibia Scientific Society, Windhoek; Gibson, GD, Larson, TJ & McGurk, CR, 1981, The Kavango Peoples, Steiner, Frankfurt; Hayes, P, 1992, 'A History of the Ovambo of Namibia, c. 1880–1935', unpublished PhD thesis, Cambridge University; and Siiskonen, H, 1990, Trade and Socioeconomic Change in Ovamboland, 1850–1906, Societas Historicas Fennica, Helsinki.
22	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2015, Migration Report, Namibia 2011 Census, NSA, Windhoek.
23	See note 22 for source data.
24	Updated using 2011 census data of the Namibia Statistics Agency and data described in note 25.
25	Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>.
26	Weber, B & Mendelsohn, JM, 2017, Informal Settlements in Namibia, Their Nature and Growth: Exploring ways to make Namibian urban development more socially just and inclusive, Development Workshop Namibia, Windhoek. The images shown here were obtained from Google Earth via Terra Incognita.
27	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2013, Namibia Population and Housing Census 2011, NSA, Windhoek.
28	While the national language is English and is a compulsory subject in schools, it is not necessarily the main language of instruction, and pupils must also study a second language of Afrikaans, German, Ju\|'hoansi, Khoekhoegowab, Oshikwanyama, Oshindonga, Otjiherero, Rukwangali, Rumanyo, Setswana, Silozi or Thimbukushu.
29	Based on a map compiled by WIMSA (Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa) and adapted by Ben Begbie-Clench.
30	Analysis of Namibia Statistics Agency, 2013, Namibia Population and Housing Census 2011, NSA, Windhoek, and reports of previous population censuses. The number and proportions of people in rural and urban areas in 1991 and 2001 differ from those in the official reports. The differences arose because a number of urban areas had been incorrectly classified as rural areas for purposes of the official reports.
31	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2014, Namibia 2011 Census Population Projections, 2011–2041, NSA, Windhoek.
32	See note 31 above for source.
33	From Namibia Statistics Agency reports on the 2001 and 2011 population and housing censuses; and the agency's 2006 and 2016 inter-censal demographic survey reports.
34	See note 30.
35	From Namibia Statistics Agency reports on the 2001 and 2011 population and housing censuses.
36	From reports of the 1960, 1970, 1991, 2001 and 2011 population census reports.
37	See note 36.
38	From Namibia demographic and health surveys in 1992, 2000 and 2013; the inter-censal survey in 2006; and population and housing censuses in 1991, 2001 and 2011.
39	From Namibia's population and housing censuses in 1991, 2001 and 2011.
40	Analysis of 2011 population and housing census data. The analysis was limited to females aged 15–64 (inclusive) who had left school or had never attended school.
41	From Namibia Statistics Agency's 2001 and 2011 population and housing census reports; and its 2006 Namibia intercensal demographic survey report.
42	From Namibia Statistics Agency's 2001 and 2011 population and housing census reports; and its 2006 and 2016 Namibia inter-censal demographic survey reports.
43	See note 42.
44	Weber, B & Mendelsohn, JM, 2017, Informal Settlements in Namibia, Their Nature and Growth: Exploring ways to make Namibian urban development more socially just and inclusive, Development Workshop Namibia, Windhoek.
45	See note 44.
46	Mendelsohn, JM, el Obeid, S & Roberts, CS, 2000, A Profile of North-Central Namibia, Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism.
47	Analysis of Nambia Statistics Agency's 2011 population & housing census data.
48	Namibia Statistics Agency's demographic and health surveys in 1992, 2000 and 2013; their inter-censal survey in 2006; and their population and housing censuses in 1991, 2001 and 2011.
49	From Namibia's National HIV Sentinel Survey reports.
50	Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS), 2019, 'Namibia Population-Based HIV Impact Assessment (NAMPHIA), 2017: Final report', MoHSS, Windhoek.
51	These estimates of the percentage of children under five years of age that were moderately or severely underweight for their age were derived from national health and demographic surveys conducted in 2006/07 and 2013 among children. New growth standards were published by the World Health Organization in 2006; the 2006/07 survey used these standards. Figures compiled using the new standards were not comparable with the results of the previous surveys.
52	From Namibia's demographic and health surveys carried out in 1992, 2006/07 and 2013, and the population and housing censuses in 1991, 2001 and 2011.
53	Mendelsohn, JM, 1997, 'Basic Education in Namibia and Sida Support: A review commissioned by the Swedish International Development Agency', Sida, Windhoek.
54	United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2011, Improving Quality and Equity in Education in Namibia: A trend and gap analysis, UNICEF Namibia, Windhoek.
55	From an analysis of the 2011 population and housing census data.
56	United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2015, A Namibia Fit for Children: 25 years of progress, UNICEF Namibia, Windhoek.
57	See note 56. Policies in Namibia dictate that children must be at school between the ages of 6 and 16, but implementation has not been even.
58	See note 55.

Chapter 10: Livelihoods

1	Adapted from Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2011, An Atlas of Poverty in Namibia, CBS, Windhoek; figures were adjusted to account for inflation between 2010 and 2020.
2	Medians provide a more accurate measure than averages of household wealth in any area because small numbers of very wealthy households skew or distort averages. The median is the number that divides the wealthiest and poorest halves of all the households in an area. Adapted from Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2011, An Atlas of Poverty in Namibia, CBS, Windhoek.
3	Calculated from information collected by the Namibia Statistics Agency during the national household income and expenditure survey conducted in 2016. For more information refer to: Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2021, Namibia Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), NSA, Windhoek.
4	From the Namibia household income and expenditure surveys (NHIES) of 2003/04, 2010/11 and 2015/16 by the Namibia Statistics Agency, and summarised by Alwis Weerasinghe. In the 1993/94 and 2003/04 NHIES, poor and severely poor households were identified by the 'food share' methodology. This method, however, has limitations and was replaced with the 'cost of basic needs' method. Estimates for the 2003/04 survey were converted to this new method and published in Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2008, A Review of Poverty and Inequality in Namibia, NSA, Windhoek.
5	From the Namibia labour force surveys by the Namibia Statistics Agency and summarised by Alwis Weerasinghe.
6	See note 5.
7	Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), Namibia Labour Force Survey, 2018, NSA, Windhoek.
8	The labour force consists of people aged 15 years of age or older who are available to work, but excludes people who are full-time students or homemakers, or who are ill, disabled or retired.
9	From the population and housing census of 2001 and Namibia household income and expenditure surveys (NHIES) of 2003/04, 2010/11 and 2015/16 conducted by the Namibia Statistics Agency.
10	European Union, n.d., '1.3.3 Contribution of the informal economy to GDP', available at <https://europa.eu/capacity4dev/rnsf-mit/wiki/133-contribution-informal-economy-gdp>.
11	Doran, MH, Low, ARC & Kemp, RL, 1979, 'Cattle as a Store of Wealth in Swaziland: Implications for livestock development and overgrazing in eastern and southern Africa', American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61: 41–47; Düvel, GH & Stephanus, AL, 2000, 'A Comparison of Economic and Cultural Incentives in the Marketing of Livestock in Some Districts of the Northern Communal Areas of Namibia, Agrekon, 39: 657–664; Gomes, AF, 2012, 'O gado na agricultura familiar praticada no sudoeste de Angola. Meios de vida e vulnerabilidade dos grupos domésticos pastoralistas e agro-pastoralistas', Tese para Grau de Doutor em Engenharia Agronómica, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa; Ndoro, JT, Mudhara, M & Chimonyo, M, 2014, 'Cattle Commercialization in Rural South Africa: Livelihood drivers and implications for livestock marketing extension', Journal of Human Ecology, 45: 207–221; Otte, MF & Chilonda, P, 2002, Cattle and Small Ruminant Production Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome; Ouma, EA, Obare, GA & Staal, SJ, 2003, 'Cattle as Assets: Assessment of non-market benefits from cattle in smallholder Kenyan crop-livestock systems, in the Proceedings of the 25th International Conference of Agricultural Economists (IAAE); Siegmund-Schultze, M, Lange, F, Schneiderat, U & Steinbach, J, 2012, 'Performance, Management and Objectives of Cattle Farming on Communal Ranges in Namibia', Journal of Arid Environments, 80: 65–73.
12	Maital, S & Barzani, E, 2019, Gross Domestic Problem, Why GDP Misleads and How to Fix It: A survey of recent research, Samuel Neaman Institute, Haifa, Israel; and Stiglitz, J, 2020, 'Measuring What Matters', Scientific American, 323(2): 24–31, doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0820-24.
13	For example, WE-Africa, 'Building Wellbeing Economies in Africa', available at <www.we-africa.org>; and Helliwell, JF, Layard, R, Sachs, J & De Neve, JE, (Eds), 2021, World Happiness Report 2021, Sustainable Development Solutions Network, New York.
14	National Planning Commission (NPC), 2021, 'Namibia's Second Voluntary National Review Report on the Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals Towards Agenda 2030', Office of the President, NPC, Windhoek.
15	From the Namibia household income and expenditure surveys (NHIES) of 1993/94, 2003/04, 2010/11 and 2015/16 by the Namibia Statistics Agency, and summarised by Alwis Weerasinghe.
16	Helliwell, JF, Layard, R, Sachs, J & De Neve, JE, (Eds), 2021, World Happiness Report 2021, Sustainable Development Solutions Network, New York.
17	Based on: Spawn, SA & Gibbs, HK, 2020, Global Aboveground and Belowground Biomass Carbon Density Maps for the Year 2010, ORNL DAAC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, doi: 10.3334/ORNLDAAC/1763; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) & Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils (ITPS), 2018, Global Soil Organic Carbon Map (GSOC map) Technical Report, FAO & ITPS, Rome, 162 pp; and Ricke, K, Drouet, L, Caldeira, K & Tavoni, M, 2018, 'Country-Level Social Cost of Carbon', Nature Climate Change, 8: 895–900.
18	The availability of fuel wood was estimated on the basis of satellite data on aboveground woody biomass (Santoro et al., 2018), of which approximately 90 per cent could be used as fuel wood (Barnes et al., 2005), also taking accessibility into account, on the basis of land tenure and resource-sharing agreements, estimated at 100 per cent on communal lands; 10 per cent on freehold land; and none in state-protected areas, apart from Bwabwata, where 50 per cent of stocks were assumed to be accessible under the resource-sharing agreement. The estimate of standing stocks is slightly higher than the 256 million cubic metres estimated by Barnes et al. (2005). The difference can likely be attributed to improved high-resolution satellite imagery and the expansion of bush encroachment across Namibia over the last decade.Net income was based on the estimated 2019 price of N$1,440 per cubic metre, and 84 per cent ratio of resource rent to revenue (after Barnes et al., 2005). Subsistence use was estimated assuming that collection is as close to home as possible, and no further than six kilometres, and limited by available stocks. See Turpie et al. (2020) for methods. Demand was estimated using detailed 2019 population density from the WorldPop database (available at <https://www.worldpop.org>) derived from statistical and satellite data, and information on per-capita firewood demand in different areas. Barnes, JI, Nhuleipo, O, Muteyauli, PI & MacGregor, J, 2005, 'Preliminary Economic Asset and Flow Accounts for Forest Resources in Namibia', Directorate of Environmental Affairs Research Discussion Paper, 70: 1–20, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek. Santoro, M, Cartus, O, Mermoz, S, Bouvet, A, Le Toan, T, Carvalhais, N, Rozendaal, D, Herold, M, Avitabile, V, Quegan, S, Carreiras, J, Rauste, Y, Balzter, H, Schmullius, C & Seifert, FM, 2018, 'GlobBiomass Global Above-ground Biomass and Growing Stock Volume Datasets (at 92-m Resolution)', available at <http://globbiomass.org/products/global-mapping>. Turpie, JK, Letley, G, Schmidt, K, Weiss, J, O'Farrell, P & Jewitt, D, 2020, 'Towards a Method for Accounting for Ecosystem Services and Asset Value: Pilot accounts for KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2005-2011', Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services (CAVES) project report, available at <https://seea.un.org/content/knowledge-base>.
19	This is an approximation, as the actual offtake and use of game in different parts of Namibia is still poorly understood. Trophy hunting estimates are based on Maclaren et al. (2019). The potential sustainable supply of game species for meat was estimated using regional game population estimates for communal conservancies with hunting partners (NACSO, 2016; average counts 2012–2016, in some cases across adjoining conservancies) and freehold land within each region (Lindsey, 2011) and sustainable offtake (~natural growth) rates (Spinage, 1987; Craig & Lawson, 1990). The resource rent value for game meat and trophies was estimated to be approximately 27 per cent of the gross output. Craig, C & Lawson, D, 1990, 'Quota-setting Methods for Cropping and Trophy Hunting of Wildlife Species in Botswana', unpublished paper, Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Gaborone, Botswana, 19 pp. Erb, KP, 2004, 'Consumptive Wildlife Utilization as a Land-Use Form in Namibia', Master of Business Administration, Graduate School of Business, University of Stellenbosch. Lindsey, P, 2011, 'An Analysis of Game Meat Production and Wildlife-Based Land Uses on Freehold Land in Namibia: Links with food security', TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe. MacLaren, C, Perche, J & Middleton, A, 2019, 'The Value of Hunting for Conservation in the Context of the Biodiversity Economy, Vol V', in Turpie, J, (Ed.), The Development of Strategies to Maintain and Enhance the Protection of Ecosystem Services in Namibia's State, Communal and Freehold Lands', Namibia Nature Foundation, Windhoek, available at <https://resmob.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2019-06-Hunting_report_Draft.pdf>. NACSO, 2016, The State of Community Conservation in Namibia: A review of communal conservancies, community forests and other CBNRM initiatives (2016 Annual Report), NACSO, Windhoek. Spinage, C, 1987, Review of the aerial monitoring programme of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Botswana, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Gaborone, Botswana.
20	Carrying capacity estimates from Mendelsohn et al. (2002). Livestock contributions to GDP based on Namibia Statistics Agency (2018). Mapping of livestock from the Gridded Livestock of the World database giving density of cattle, sheep and goats at a 10-km resolution circa 2010 (based on data from FAO). Per-capita values of livestock and offtake rates were based on the following estimates and sources: on average, south of the veterinary fence, cattle are worth N$10,000 per head, sheep N$900, goats N$1,000; and north of the veterinary fence, cattle are worth N$5,500 per head, sheep N$750 and goats N$900. Offtake rates south of the veterinary fence on freehold land were estimated at: cattle, 25 per cent; and sheep and goats, 20 per cent. Offtake rates south of the veterinary fence on communal land were estimated at: cattle, sheep and goats, 20 per cent. Offtake rates north of the veterinary fence were estimated at: cattle, 7 per cent; and sheep and goats, 3 per cent. These estimates were based on Mendelsohn (2006), Enkono et al. (2013), Togarepi et al. (2016, 2018), Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (2018) and Meat Board of Namibia (2018). The value of livestock production was mapped using official statistics on livestock numbers for 2018 at the regional scale and apportioned to a spatial grid based on 2010 density estimates for cattle, sheep and goats at a 10-km resolution. Enkono, SG, Kalundu, SK & Thomas, B, 2013, 'Analysis of Factors Influencing Cattle Off-take Rate and Marketing in Ndiyona Constituency of Kavango Region, Namibia', Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 5(9): 201–206. Meat Board of Namibia, 2018, 'Monthly Meat Prices, 2018, available at <https://www.meatco.com.na/. Mendelsohn, J, 2006, Farming Systems in Namibia: A publication for the Namibia National Farmers Union (NNFU), RAISON, Windhoek. Mendelsohn, J, Jarvis, A, Roberts, C & Robertson, T, 2002, Atlas of Namibia: A portrait of the land and its people, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town, for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Namibia), available at <http://the-eis.com/elibrary/>. Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry, 2018, Agricultural Price Watch Namibia 2018, Directorate of Planning and Business Development, Windhoek. Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2018, Annual National Accounts 2018, NSA, Windhoek. Togarepi, C, Thomas, B & Hilka Mika, N, 2018, 'Why Goat Farming in Northern Communal Areas of Namibia is not Commercialised: The case of Ogongo Constituency', Journal of Sustainable Development, 11(6): 236–245. Togarepi C, Thomas B & Kankono M, 2016, 'Cattle Marketing Constraints and Opportunities in North-Central Communal Areas of Namibia, Ohangwena Region', Livestock Research for Rural Development, 28, Article #132, available at <http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd28/7/toga28132.html>.
21	Total GDP estimate from World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) for 2020, and past WTTC multipliers. Mapping of tourism values was based on numbers of visitors from the Ministry of Environment, Forestry (2020); expenditure data from WTTC; and frequency of activities listed in Ministry of Environment and Tourism (2013, 2016) were used to estimate total expenditure on visiting any attractions. This value was spatially distributed using the densities of geotagged photographs uploaded on the website flickr.com over 2005–2017; and built-up areas were subtracted to estimate nature-based tourism value. Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2013, 'Report on the Namibia Tourist Exit Survey, 2012–2013', produced by Millennium Challenge Account for the Directorate of Tourism, Windhoek. Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2016, 'Namibia Domestic Tourism Expenditure Survey, 2015', produced by the Namibia Tourism Board for the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Windhoek. Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism, 2020, 'Tourist Statistical Report 2019', Directorate of Tourism and Gaming, Windhoek. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 2020, 'Economic Impact Report: Namibia', available at <https://wttc.org/Research/Economic-Impact>.
22	Data supplied by Katharina Dierkes via the Namibian Association of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Support Organisations (NACSO).
23	Data provided by Detlof von Oertzen, VO Consulting, Swakopmund.
24	Data provided by NamPower and Detlof von Oertzen, VO Consulting, Swakopmund.
25	See note 24.
26	See note 23.
27	NamPower GIS data used in this map is available at <https://www.nampower.com.na/Page.aspx?p=192>.
28	See note 24.
29	Data from Namibia Statistics Agency (NSA), 2011, 2011 Population and Housing Census, NSA, Windhoek.
30	From the Namibia Statistics Agency's 1991, 2001 and 2011 population and housing census reports; and its 2006 and 2016 inter-censal demographic survey reports.
31	Data from the Namibia Statistics Agency's 2011 population and housing census and VO Consulting.
32	See note 31.
33	Global Wind Atlas, available at <https://globalwindatlas.info/>.
34	Data from Detlof von Oertzen, VO Consulting.
35	Underlying data were compiled by Africon Namibia for the Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) study (2009) with input from the national Roads Authority.
36	Namibian–German Centre for Logistics (NGCL), 2021, 'Namibia State of Logistics: 2020 report and the challenge of COVID-19', NGCL, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Windhoek.

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End pages

Notes and references

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Landforms and geology

Chapter 3: Climate

Chapter 4: Water

Chapter 5: Soils

Chapter 6: Vegetation

Chapter 7: Wildlife

Chapter 8: Land

Chapter 9: People

Chapter 10: Livelihoods